Learning Theory
"Learning Theory" is a discipline of psychology that attempts to explain how an organism learns. It consists of many different theories of learning, including instincts, social facilitation, observation, formal teaching, memory, mimicry, and classical and operant conditioning. It is these last two that are of most interest to animal trainers.
Clicker training for your horse by Alexandra Kurland
Clicker training refers to a method of teaching certain behaviors to animals, using a ‘yes’ signal (in this case the clicker), to tell the animal precisely when it has done something right. It is all about positive reinforcement.
For those not familiar with clicker training here is a brief description. Clicker training began with the dolphin trainers. They were faced with the problem of having to train an animal that could just swim away from them. You cannot put a halter on a dolphin and "make" him behave. All the standard coercive training techniques people knew from dog and horse training just didn't seem to apply. So how do you get a dolphin to do anything?
The solution was to shape behavior using positive reinforcement. But even that presented a problem. How do you tell a dolphin that you liked what it just did? By the time it finds the fish you just threw in the water, it won't have any connection to the behavior you were trying to reward.
This problem was solved by introducing a high frequency whistle. Now the dolphin learns that any time it hears that whistle, food is coming. Link the whistle to behavior, and the dolphin quickly learns that certain actions will get the vending machine to work. Every time it swims near a certain part of the tank, the whistle sounds, and a fish appears in the water. If it swims anywhere else nothing happens. Once the dolphin understands that behavior leads to whistle leads to fish, you are well on the way to training very complex behaviors.
The whistle is a bridging signal (or secondary reinforcer to use the more technical term). It gives the animal very clear and precise information. It's a "right answer cue". It says to the animal: ‘the behavior you just did will get you a treat’.
We can adapt this system very easily into horse training. With horses we use a plastic toy clicker. You can also use a tongue click (which is different from the clucks and kisses we use to ask for motion. And yes, the horses can tell the difference, so there's no confusion between the sounds.)
We usually begin by teaching the horse to touch his nose to a target. The lid off a container works great, a plastic bottle, a plastic cone, anything. The object here is to condition the horse to the clicker and teach him the connection between behavior and treats. He's going to learn that mugging the vending machine (you) to get treats doesn't work, but he can get the vending machine to work by simply performing certain behaviors.
This by the way addresses the concern of feeding a horse treats. When you add a secondary reinforcer you gain control of goodies. Without it, the horse has no rules. He never knows when you might have a carrot, so is it any surprise that he's constantly checking out your pockets or nibbling at your hands? Without the bridging signal food is a distraction to good training. With it, it becomes a powerful motivator that can produce outstanding performance and happy, can do horses.
Alexandra Kurland, author of ‘Clicker Training for your Horse’
What clicker training can do for you
Not only can Clicker training give you a whole new perspective on horse training, it can give you another perspective on life. Just by being aware of how people interact using reinforcements in their everyday life. How they use it and how successful they are … or are not.
In horse and other animal training it can teach you to look at the positive side. Not to look at what behavior you don’t want but at what you do want instead. It will teach you to chunk behavior down in tiny little pieces. You might think you are already doing so but it will add another level of finesse. As a result your training will become more successful as well.
It will give you and your animal friend more fun.
It will give both of you more understanding.
It will give both of you a language.
It will accelerate your progress.
Why should animal trainers be bothered with learning the theory behind how their animals learn? Many excellent trainers have no formal schooling or organized understanding of how their training is effective or how their charges work, but training is both an art and a science. More and more trainers - pet owners, show competitors, horseback riders, show-business trainers, zookeepers, aquarium trainers and more - are finding that an understanding of learning theory helps them understand their animals' behaviors better, and plan their training accordingly. So trainers are learning the theory of learning theory!
I have a dream… of dancing with horses! If you are inspired to do the same… …get educated on this page !
How do I start?
- Conditioning the clicker: I always start with conditioning the horse (or other animal) to the clicker. I click and treat about 20 times in a row without asking for any behavior. I am careful to really give these clicks and treats at random, whatever the horse is doing. The only thing I want him to learn at this point is that a click is always followed by a treat. After 20 times I will test the horse by waiting until his attention is somewhere else and then click. If the horse turns towards me right away to get his treat I know that he understands the click. I have given the click a meaning. It takes only a few minutes. Some people start with targeting right away. I want to explain to my horse first how the game works.
-Targeting: After conditioning the horse to the clicker, I start with targeting. You can use anything for a target. A cone, a lid, a brush, the back end of a whip, you name it. I made my own target stick by pushing a little ball onto the end of a three foot dowel. The nice thing about this is that you can tape your clicker on the dowel with hockey tape. Now you can hold target stick and clicker in one hand.
Starting out with your horse in a stall and you outside behind a stall guard is always a good idea. This way your horse cannot get to you to get the treats. At this point he doesn’t really know the rules yet: he ONLY gets a treat AFTER the click. At this point he will also try to get the treat before the click.
Hold the target close to the horse’s nose. Usually horses are very curious and he will sniff the target. As soon as he touched it you click and treat. Repeat this a few times. Remember timing is very important. Click at the exact moment the horse touches the target or when he is moving his nose towards it. Try to avoid clicking when he pulls his nose back.
Very quickly you will see the light bulb go on in your horse’s head and you will be able to start moving the target around. If you start moving the target to another spot move it only an inch or so away. First sideways, then you can ask him to touch it when you hold it up a little higher or lower. In very small steps you increase the distance and in a very short time your horse will be really stretching his nose out to touch it.
Do I have to use a clicker?
A lot of people use a tongue click with horses. We just don’t have enough hands to hold a lead rope, a clicker, a target stick, have your hands on your horse etc. If you are working in a busy arena, some people find the clicker very annoying. Or when you are riding, holding the actual clicker can be a nuisance.
I use a tongue click with clicker wise horses but when starting a horse I always use a clicker. The sound is just so much more distinct. Even with my clicker wise horses I will use the clicker whenever I can. It just seems a bit clearer and just a tiny bit quicker.
A word on punishment and time outs:
Sometimes you come into a situation where punishment seems necessary. To me this is only the case when a horse is being aggressive and you have to put a stop to the behavior right now. But even then punishment has severe drawbacks.
Do I have to use food?
No, you don’t. You can use any reward you want. You can use a short scratch on the withers, or praise, or anything else your horse is willing to work for. Foals for instance work wonderfully well for scratches.
Most people use food because it is such a high motivator for horses. Food can create problems in horse training because if it is used without a marker signal, there are no rules around it. With the clicker it becomes a highly motivational tool because the horse gets strict rules about food taking.
Timing
Timing is your most important factor in horse training. It is the timing of the release in traditional pressure and release training or it is the timing of the clicker in clicker training.
This is one of the reasons why clicker training is so effective because your timing can be so precise. And it is a signal that can be given from a distance!
What else could you do?
Instead of giving your horse something he really doesn’t want (like pain), we call this positive punishment, you can also punish by taking away something he really does want (negative punishment). In the case of clicker trained horses that is your attention. Clicker horses are so eager to work with you (to train you), that not working with them becomes a punishment as well. You just turn your back to your horse and refuse to interact with him for a shorter or longer time depending on the offence. This is what we call a time out. These time outs have proved to be very valuable in dealing with unwanted behavior.
How to keep everything going smoothly
and how to avoid problems
This is a compilation I made of suggestions, hints, ideas and advice from people on the clickryder list.
1. Safety!!!:
Safety, safety, safety !!! If your horse is not safe, start out behind a stall guard or behind a fence. You’d be surprised how much you can teach your horse without being in the same enclosure with him (read Alex’s touching story about Fig, the aggressive horse in ‘Clicker Training For Your Horse’). Targeting is a perfect example of an early exercise (should be your first exercise!) that you can teach in this safe ‘behind the stall guard’ situation.
2. Good mechanical skills: practice before you start with your horse.
- Correct food presentation:
Keep your hands away from your pouch until after the click.
Treat away from your body, hold your hand flat and let the horse politely take the treat. This might seem trivial but is very important! Your horse could think that your hand reaching for the pouch is actually the marker signal. With CT, your horse becomes very aware of your hand movements!
Perfect your timing: Practice on other animals first, play games with the clicker, throw a ball in the air and try to click when the ball reaches its max. height, play clicker games with people, virtual bird game,…
3. Make a training plan and record your progress:
Not a lot of people do this. I find it extremely helpful to keep my focus and to stay on track over a period of time. If you do it, do it detailed. It’s fun too!
4. Start with targeting:
If you are just starting with CT, you might wonder what is so great about targeting. It is a tool to teach your horse the meaning of the click and you will be astounded (and pleasantly surprised) how many behaviors can grow out of this simple technique. So please don’t think this is just a beginner’s exercise.
5. Click for behavior, treat for position:
Do not treat until your horse is polite. You can ask him to back up a step after you have clicked and before you treat or ask him to turn his face away or keep it straight. Never give him his reward if his behavior is less than desirable!
6. Never ignore bad behavior:
You can purposefully decide to ignore it but only as part of your training plan, always know (or at least try to) what is going on.
So if bad behavior shows up, stop your training (time out), regroup and decide what you are going to do about it. Go back to something simpler. Take the time to prevent problems.
7. Time-outs:
Time outs are very powerful. If your horse is non cooperative or ‘cranky’ in any way, give him a time out. Refuse to interact with him, he gets NO attention (remember at this point your horse probably thinks negative attention is better than no attention). This can go from turning your back to him to turning and walking away. YOU CAN DO THIS OVER AND OVER until your horse complies. When you return his attention to him, be happy and pleasant as if nothing ever happened.
And of course click and reward the instant he changes his behavior.
8. Teach an incompatible behavior/Teach or ask for Head Down:
Asking for head down is a calm down cue. It is also incompatible with any aggressive behavior. Your horse cannot bite you with his head down. Extremely valuable.
9. You get what you reinforce:
When things go wrong, have a good close look at what you are reinforcing! You can get behaviors from your horse that you had no idea of that you were actually training them. Be very attentive!
Making up a training plan is very helpful!
10. High schedule of reinforcement:
When your horse is cranky you could try to go back to a higher rate of reinforcement but only with a smile on your horse’s face. Your horse won’t have time to show bad behavior. Then lower your reinforcement rate again.
Don’t give free reinforcements though, make sure you still get enough behavior.
11. Keep sessions short:
More short sessions per day are more effective than one long one (if you can swing it). Always end each (short) session with a success and an ‘end’ signal. Short sessions will increase the attention you get from your horse.
12. Keep sessions varied:
Train different things. Not everything at the same time but a few minutes on this behavior, a few minutes on that … and then return to the first one if you wish. You might want to add short breaks (a few minutes) between these training segments as some horses seem to experience mental overload when first starting CT or when training something new.
Vary your sessions in length, difficulty and order.
13. End on a good note:
End with something fun (for your horse) or easy. So that he is successful. So, quit while you are ahead!
14. Set your horse up for success:
If your horse fails a few times in a row, take a time out (for both of you) and reassess why this is happening and what you could be doing wrong. Usually you are asking too much at once. Take baby steps.
15. Take baby steps (simplicity):
You want your horse to be successful. Think about the behavior you are trying to train and chunk it up in tiny little behaviors. Train one at the time and increase difficulty only when your horse has shown he understands the previous step.
16. Click and reinforce the slightest try:
All about your horse being successful. When introducing something new, look for that slightest try (a shift in weight, a look, …).
17. Train one criterion at the time … plus attitude:
This is all about clear communication. Always make sure that you click only when the horse gives you the behavior AND a good attitude. I think this is where a lot of people get into trouble because not enough attention is paid to the horse’s frame of mind. We concentrate on the behavior and leave the ‘attitude’ problem till later, because we can only focus on one criterion, right?
Avoid reinforcing things you don’t want even if they go together with things you do want.
18. Duration: tiny steps and a KGS:
Building duration in a behavior can be major cause of frustration … if you go too fast. So golden rule: build duration in tiny increments. Ask for longer and longer and then short again and long and short and longer and longer and short and longer and longer and longer … Get my drift?
Counting out loud is a very good idea when working on duration. It will keep you focused and more aware of how much you are asking for.
Teach your horse a keep going signal and things will be clearer for him.
19. You are always training:
When you are with your horse, you are training him/her. CT is not something you do once in a while. So you better take that pouch with you whenever you go visit your horse! Some good horse souls will let you get away with part time CT but some horses can get very ‘cranky’ from inconsistent behavior.
20. Define your space:
Teach your horse not to invade your bubble. He can only come in when he has been invited to do so. You can make his default behavior standing still and relaxed outside of your space. You reinforce your horse for standing still and doing nothing except ‘looking pleasant’.
21. Control your intent and emotions:
Ooh, horses are so good at reading our intentions and emotions. Try to be relaxed and try to have no intentions. Be a neutral being. Don’t let time pressure you. Take the time it takes and it will take less time.
22. Your horse can only be as brave as you are:
Horses sense your fear, they can feel it, they can smell, they can see it, they can hear it, they can taste it. They have to because it comes with their survival skills package. If one herd member gets scared, they all get scared. If you get scared, your horse thinks you must have good reason for it so he will get scared … or take advantage of you if he’s smart. It is often a vicious circle that in many cases only seems to get worse.
Being aware of this is your first step. And then try to change it. Try to feel safe in all your training situations so start outside your horses enclosure and get him to be polite even without you being in there with him. If you can increase your feeling of safety, your feeling of fear will diminish.
And then relax … take deep breaths… yawn… relax… deep breaths… yawn…
This is especially a problem for novice handlers with pushy or aggressive horses (heck, anybody will get scared with the aggressive ones).
23. ‘Start’ and ‘End’ signal:
The ‘start’ signal is usually you showing up. If you are not in the habit of paying any attention to your horse whatsoever (even though that is still interacting, it is: ‘I am not interacting with you and I still want you to do something: ‘stay there and mind your own business’), it might be useful to teach your horse a start signal (a word, a sound, a gesture, …).
As ‘end’ signal most people give their horse a jackpot, hold their empty hands up, give horsey a good rub and a goooood boooooy, and then leave. Some people feel they can stay with their horse and their horse still knows the session is over. If your horse doesn’t know the signal, always leave.
Be careful your horse doesn’t think he is getting a major time out (negative punishment), this might be a cause of frustration. If you see any frustration showing up, give him the ‘end’ signal when you are out of his enclosure. Make it very pleasant … and then leave.
24. Be careful of what you ask for …
Because you just might get it. Don’t teach your horse any ‘tricks’ before he is a good solid citizen. Especially potentially dangerous tricks like rearing and lying down can come back and bite you (severely!). If you have taught your horse to rear, he will be much more inclined to do so when he gets frustrated. And what about that pony that starts rolling but didn’t know he wasn’t supposed to do that with a child on his back?
If you do teach your horse these tricks (at a later stage), put the time in to teach them properly and to put them on cue (properly!)
25. When behavior breaks down:
When this happens don’t always think your horse is being uncooperative. Especially when you are in a new environment. Because you have taught your horse to do something in one place (like at home) does not mean he will do it somewhere else (stage fright). If you want your horse to be consistent in his behavior everywhere, you will have to teach it to him in a lot of different places. Only when your horse has learned to generalize, will he ‘perform’ reliably in new places.
26. Punishment:
A lot has been written about punishment. If your timing is extremely good (and it usually isn’t), it can be very effective. If it is not, it can bring on all sorts of side effects (see ‘A word on punishment and time-outs’).
27. And as Alex says:
We cannot expect to get the behavior on a consistent basis unless we have gone through a teaching process to teach it to our horse.
1. First of all most people punish too late. If punishment is to work, your timing has to be extremely good and at the exact time the bad behavior is occurring. Look at bucking for instance. You got bucked off and you are going to teach that horse who the boss is around here. Your horse will have no idea you are punishing him for bucking. For all he knows he is being punished for just standing there.
2. Another problem with punishing is that the punishing itself is self reinforcing for the punisher. The person might see a temporary improvement in behavior and thinks: ‘See, it worked!’ and will be very quick to punish again the next time.
3. The punisher usually gets very emotional. This leads to going from one smack to an outright beating. The punisher feels better while he is punishing because it is a stress relief. Again, this is self reinforcing.
4. Your horse will get desensitized. The smack you gave your horse yesterday and today, might not make much of an impression on him tomorrow. The punishment gets bigger and bigger to have the same effect.
5. The effect of punishment is very unreliable. It usually doesn’t even work, it might even have unwanted side effects like a horse that becomes very afraid around people or head shy or quick to kick (in ‘self-defense’).
Books, videos & links
My favorites books & videos:
- ‘Don’t shoot the dog’ by Karen Prior
- ‘Clicker training for your horse’ by Alexandra Kurland
- ‘The click that teaches’ video series by Alexandra Kurland
- ‘Click and reward’ llama training video series by Jim and Amy Logan
Each site will have his own links to other sites. If you want information on clicker training and operant conditioning, the internet is limitless.
- www.clickertraining.com Karen Pryor’s site
- www.theclickercenter.com Alexandra Kurland’s site
- www.horsemansarts.com Sharon, Laurie and Sarah with the story of Gregor
- www.clickryder.8m.com/ Judy Ryder’s site with tons and tons of info
- www.groups.yahoo.com/group/clickryder a great discussion board on clicker training
- www.wagntrain.com/OC/ about the science behind clicker training